The Significant role played by Buddhism in assisting goverance of country

 

Since Sakyamuni founded Buddhist groups, Buddhism has been playing a positive role in many areas of society. It didn’t matter if this role concerned the fighting between the Sakyan clan and their neighbors for water rights, or successfully resolving the enmity between King Ajatasattu and Yue zhi, thus avoiding a war between their two countries through the mediation of Sakyamuni himself and his Buddhist groups. Also in Chinese history, it was commonplace for many eminent and virtuous Buddhist monks to be not only the abbots of their temples but also the teachers of the emperors of those times.

 

In addition to being the emperors’ teachers, some Buddhist monks became the prime ministers in feudal China. One example is that of Master Hsuan Tsang who accompanied Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty as a consultant on national affairs while also being in charge of translating the Buddhist sutras. Another example is that of Master Xuanwan who was honourably appointed by the Imperial Court of the Tang Dynasty to be the teacher of the Prince. A third example happened during the Anti-Japanese War, when Japan spread the rumour to Burma, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and others, bearing false accusations that there was no Buddhism in China in order to demolish their religious beliefs. At that time, Master Taixu, China’s religious leader, went abroad to propagate Chinese national customs which gained support from Britain, the United States, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Burma. As a result, the Yunnan Myanmar Highway became unimpeded.

 

In the history of human society there have been many wise kings who cared about their subjects. During their rule they recruited and installed virtuous people in important positions in order to ensure the long-term safety and peace of their monarchies and its people. This made it possible for many eminent and virtuous Buddhist monks to assist the kings in bringing benefits to the people and sharing the burdens involved in governing those kingdoms. On the other hand, some rulers abolished and exterminated adherents of Buddhism for various reasons. In other words, the attitudes of the rulers towards Buddhism often affected the long-term development of their nations.

 

Part I. The Positive Impact of Buddhism on Political (Governmental) Systems

1. India

In about 304 BC, the second emperor of the Maurya Dynasty in ancient India had a son. This son turned out to be the famous Emperor Ashoka, whose effect on history ranks first among the ancient Indian emperors, just as his popularity did. The outstanding achievements in his lifetime can be divided into two parts. In the first half of his life, Emperor Ashoka displayed his extreme, brutal imperiousness by starting the suppression of rebellions in order to establish his power and by killing his brother to seize the throne. After he ascended the throne, he ruled his kingdom internally with cruel officials and the practice of atrocities, while externally he expanded his territory by the sanguinary conquest of other countries, resulting in the period called the “Black Ashoka Era” by posterity. Emperor Ashoka’s way of doing things at this time resembled that of the First Emperor of Qin in China, the difference between them being that Emperor Ashoka held the throne much longer than the whole Qin Dynasty existed. This difference was due to his tremendous changes and deeds carried out in the latter half of his life, called the “White Ashoka Era.”

 

After he launched the war with Kalinga, Emperor Ashoka was shocked when he saw the scene filled with piles of dead bodies and blood being shed like water, and he deeply lamented. His inherent conscience was awakened by that moment’s deep sense of compassion. Besides, because of his repression of the people and the war against other countries for years on end, the country’s economy and the rebellion of its civilians were going to jeopardize his rule. At that time, the monarchy also cried out for a consensus of faith and culture to govern the people and bring about peace and stability, not only to this country but also to its neighbors. It was because of his deliberateness and exploration of the long-term safety and peace of his monarchy that Emperor Ashoka avoided a fate similar to that of the Qin Dynasty in China, wherein after a very short period of ruling, this dynasty was subverted by the populace for the sake of “overthrowing tyranny.”

 

After the war against Kalinga, Emperor Ashoka many times invited the Venerable Upagupta, the fourth generation Buddhist descendant of Sakyamuni, to discuss the strategies of governing his monarchy. Moved and inspired by Venerable Upagupta, Emperor Ashoka felt deep regret and concern about the Kalingans’ suffering during the war he initiated. Later on, he declared to his people that “the sound of war drums” had fallen silent and “the sound of Buddha dharma” took their place. Diplomatically, he frequently sent eminent Buddhist monks and sutras, and promoted Buddhist culture to his neighboring countries. Before long, Buddhism had spread throughout Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Egypt, Syria, Burma, China and other parts of the world, which helped him achieve a high international reputation during his rule of over forty years.

 

Afterwards, Emperor Ashoka declared Buddhism as the state religion of India. He also had the imperial decree and essential Buddhist precepts engraved on the precipice, which has become the famous Ashoka Imperial Orders of Cliff Inscriptions and Stalagmite Inscriptions. He himself made the pilgrimage to the holy remains of Sakyamuni Buddha, built stupas and visited eminent Buddhist monks in various places. He engraved the teachings of Buddha on the cliffs of scenic spots, which still stand erect. In addition, he instituted regulations to tolerate other religions, offered Jainism and Brahmanism their proper places in society and forbade them to attack each other. All these not only reflected the basic essence of Buddhism, but also embodied the governing strategies of Emperor Ashoka. Thus he effectively avoided a lot of conflict and crisis by being broad-minded enough to tolerate other religions while establishing Buddhism as the state religion.

 

Buddhist culture played the most magnificent and positive role in assisting in the long-term safety and peace of his monarchy. With the help of Buddhist “benevolence and wisdom,” Emperor Ashoka transformed himself from a tyrant into a wise king.

 

2. Tang Dynasty in China

In the fifth century AD, Bodhidharma (the 28th descendant of Buddha) brought to China the original essence of Buddha dharma. After going through the process of communication, collision and integration with Chinese Confucianism and Taoism, Zen of Mahayana gradually came into being through the process of going into the secular world to indoctrinate people. Since then, Zen has been passed on from generation to generation and has become an indispensable and substantial part of Chinese culture.

 

During the Tang Dynasty, China benefited from good political administration, people enjoyed religious freedom, Buddhism was wide-spread, the common people lived in peace and safety all over the country, and the neighboring countries came to pay tribute to the Chinese imperial court. The early Tang history recorded that, “only 29 people were sentenced to the death penalty this year, for which reason the criminal penalty was almost left unused. From each to west of the country, people didn’t have to lock their doors at night and travelers didn’t have to prepare their own food when they travelled around.”

 

In the nineteenth year of the Zhenguan Era, when Master Xuan Zang arrived in Changan after completing his great pilgrimage to India for Buddhist sutras, many monks and laymen rushed about, and all the shops in Changan were closed to celebrate this unprecedentedly grand occasion. Emperor Taizong of Tang himself wrote the preface for the holy indoctrination of Tang Triptaka in which he highly praised Master Xuan Zang and Buddhism. Emperor Gaozong of Tang was extremely mournful; as a result, he could not go to his imperial court for three days, and the title of “Great Enlightened Sage (Da Bian Jue)” was bestowed upon Master Xuan Zang.

 

From the time of Empress Wu Zetian to the time of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, the different Buddhist sects sprang up like mushrooms following the rain, although each complemented the other. Buddhist sutras were expounded upon everywhere in the country. This widespread movement of Buddhism was unrivalled. Zen Master Shenxiu, the leader of the Zen sect in northern China at that time, was invited by Empress Wu Zetian to be the teacher of the country. He was called “Dharma-lord in Changan and Luoyang, the teacher of three emperors.” Master Shenxiu was not only proficient in Buddha dharma, but also in many doctrines, such as metaphysics, the Book of Changes (Zhou Yi), Qimen, the Yi numbers (Yi-shu), Liu-want and Lao Tzu. During that period, the high regard and pursuit of Buddhism was so powerful that Li Shi, the scholar-bureaucrat of the Tang dynasty, was prompted to say, “Only when people worship Buddha reverently can a monarch gain the loyalty of his subjects, parents gain the filial piety of their children, a country be well administered and a family be at peace.” He thought that Buddhism had made remarkable contributions not only in preaching to people to do good deeds and helping them engage in purified thought, but also in safeguarding the safety, peace and prosperity of the society as a whole.

 

3. Song Dynasty Of China

During the period of the northern Song Dynasty and the southern Sung Dynasty, different sects of Buddhism, especially Zen, evolved further on a localized basis. It was widely propagated among civilians with the popularization and spread of typography. In the seventh year of Qingli, during the reign of Emperor Ren Zong of Song, Eunuch Liyong ning wrote a petition to the throne to have his own residence transformed into a Zen temple. Following Emperor Ren Zong’s intention to encourage the spread of Zen in northern China, he named the temple “Shifang Jingyin Temple.”

 

The imperial court attached much support to the translation of Buddhist sutras and gave positive support to Buddhism. It had become common practice for both court officials and the common people to respect, explore and believe in Buddhism. At that time, Zen Master Yongming Yanshou combined the core ideology of Zen, namely “by passing on the exact experience of their own minds by Zen masters to their disciples without the use of words. Thus they could achieve complete enlightenment and the comprehension of the true nature of his life, while comprehending the theories and practical methods of other sects which he quoted in detail in order to “be proficient in Zen practice and the indoctrination of Buddhism, rating them both of equal importance.” This had a profound influence on the officials. The successive prime ministers (in feudal China), the Military Affairs Commissioners and assistant administrators in the Song Dynasty such as Mengzheng, Fubi, Zhaott , Fanzhongyan, Wangsui, Zhangfanoping, Wanganshi, Ligang, Zhangiun and some crucial officials in the imperial court including Wangshu, Yangi, Sushi, Huangfinigian, Zhangiucheng, etc., all had a strong connection with Buddhism. Even lay Buddhists (Grha-pati) frequently benefited from monks’ inspiring words. Through good integration connecting Confucianism and Taoism, Buddhism had been commonly accepted by the upper-class people in society. Meanwhile, the discovery of science and technology in China reached its culmination: three of the four Inventions in ancient China were completed during this period, which was regarded as “the rejuvenation period of Chinese culture” by some Western historians because of its extreme prosperity in economy and culture.

 

Because in the Song Dynasty, the imperial court attached great importance to the development of commerce and handcrafts, and tolerated and supported multiple cultures, it has become an incomparable era in Chinese history during which prosperity flourished, the peoples were well-off, Buddhism thrived and science and technology were being advanced.

 

4. Taiwan

In contemporary Taiwan, the theory of “earthly Buddhism” has advanced to the level of showing loving care for society from the early stage of adapting to the needs of society. Buddhist groups in Taiwan were so well-organized and capable of launching different activities beneficial to society that it is incomparable to any other religions, including Christianity. Buddhist newspapers and periodicals, radio stations, TV programs and popularized speeches on Buddhism can be found everywhere. The social status and cultural quality of Buddhism has reached an unprecedented height in history. It has become commonplace for monks to teach in universities by virtue of their own academic capacities. A benign interaction between Buddhism and society has been formed by means of scholarships promoting Buddhist theses, Buddhist organizations, summer camps for students, etc., which not only promoted the levels of these Buddhist groups in relation to Buddhism’s beliefs, organization and cultural standards, but also gave impetus to the cultural accomplishments of the populace as well as the stability and prosperity of Taiwan.

 

When an earthquake happened in Taiwan in 1999, among the non-governmental organizations providing disaster relief for the earthquake victims, the Tzu Chi Foundation and other Buddhist groups were the most efficient ones, arrived the earliest and were generally more easily recognized by the earthquake victims and society in general. Furthermore, Buddhism in Taiwan plays a very important role in higher education in that region. So far, a lot of universities have been established, such as Nanhua University, Tzu Chi University, Xuanzang University and Huafan University among others, which have a positive impact on universal education and inculcates moral ideas to the juveniles in society.

 

Part II The Impact of Four Great Anti-Buddhist Persecutions in Chinese History on the Stability of the Political Regimes In Power

The Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution by Emperor Tai Wu in the North Wei Dynasty

The North Wei Dynasty was established by the Tuobo clan of the Xianbei ethnic after they entered the Central Plains (comprising the middle and lower reaches of the Huanghe River). Emperor Dao Wu and Emperor Ming Yuan were devout believers in Buddhism and built quite a few temples. When Emperor Tai Wu came to the throne, he believed in Buddhism at the beginning and revered sramana. However, later on after taking the advice of Cui Hao, his prime minister, he converted to Tianshidao of K’ou Ch’ien Chih, building his ashram in southeast Ping city and becoming a perfect Taoist by proclaiming himself the supreme ruler of Taiping.

 

On the other hand, in order to unite Northern China and consolidate its rule in the Central Plains, the North Wei Dynasty had to make everyone a soldier. At that time the sramana (religious ascetics) were always exempt from curve, land tax and other levies. Since Emperor Tai Wu was firmly determined to increase his military accomplishments, he started to oppose Buddhism which gradually evolved into the great Anti-Buddhist Persecution.
 

 

It began with the suppression of sramana in the fifth year of the supreme ruler of Taiping, Emperor Tai Wu, who ordered that no one, from princes and dukes to the common people, was allowed to secretly provide for sramana. Anybody who, on the sly, had hidden any sramana must turn them in by the given deadline; else his whole family would be put to death. The next year, Gaiwu of the northern ethnic group from Lushui started an insurrection in Xingcheng (Huangling in Shanxi Province) in which a hundred thousand people participated. In the seventh year, Emperor Tai Wu himself led his soldiers to suppress the rebellion. When he arrived in Changan, he was furious when he found some weapons in a temple, causing him to suspect that the sramana conspired with Gaiwu, thus leading him to order the death of everyone in the temple. Cuihao seized the chance to persuade Emperor Tai Wu to exterminate Buddhism. As a result, severe policies aimed at abolishing Buddhism were further put into effect, resulting in the killing of sramana in Changan and the burning of all Buddhist sutras and figures. For a short while, everyone in the country was fearful of danger in every sound. Tuba-huang, at that time the prince who had the power to administer the country when the Emperor was absent, presented petitions time and again to dissuade him in this extermination policy. Although the Emperor did not take his advice, these petitions helped to postpone the announcement of the imperial edict, consequently enabling the sramana far and near to hide and escape when they heard the news, and enabling many Buddhist figures and sutras to be secretly hidden. However, none of the temples within Wei State were able to escape. Historically this was referred to as “the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution by Tai Wu.”

 

Not long after Buddhism was abolished, Guanquanzhi died of illness. Cuihao was cut in two at the waist for showing contempt for the Hu clan, and over a hundred people from Cuihao’s clan were put to death. The sixth year after abolishing Buddhism, Emperor Tai Wu from Tubatao was killed by Zongai who sent Tubayu, the youngest son of Emperor Tai Wu, to the throne. After that, Zongai killed Tubayu, It wasn’t until Emperor Wu Cheng was enthroned that an imperial edict was made, reviving Buddhism and paving the way for the Yungang Grottoes to be built. Thus Buddhism gradually came back to life.

 

During the period of Emperor Tai Wu of Tubatao, the country’s economy was developed to some extent within a period of time. But because of Emperor Tai Wu’s excessive action of exterminating Buddhism, later on Emperor Wen Cheng encountered trouble. Although he began to revive Buddhism in order to make the country rich and give the people peace and security, “the awful mess” left by Emperor Tai Wu had led to his subjects in the country lacking a common view in ideology and culture, resulting in the escalating conflicts between the aristocrats of Zianbei and the populace of Ethnic Han Chinese. The other fatal problem was the increasing corruption among the aristocrats of Xianbei, despite the fact that Emperor Wen Cheng repeatedly announced imperial edicts to try to stop it. But the corruption of the officials of all ranks and descriptions had become too severe to allow the edicts to work efficiently. As the suffering of the populace couldn’t be alleviated, their rebellion to the ruling party became more intense.

 

As a result, Emperor Wu Cheng died young.

 

Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution by Emperor Wu in the North Zhou Dynasty

The second Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution happened when Emperor Wu Di, Yu Wen Yong of the Northern Zhou Dynasty, was in power, which was about 110 years after the first incident by Emperor Tai Wu in the Northern Wei Dynasty. The Northern Zhou Dynasty ruled the region of Guanzhong-Longxi after the Western Wei Dynasty where Buddhism had prevailed since the Jin Dynasty. The Buddhist Group of Kumarajiva once preached and translated Buddhist Sutras in Changani for a long time, and had a tremendous influence in the region. At that time, over 200,000 monks and nuns and more than 30,000 Buddhist temples flourished all over the country. Among the successive emperors of the Northern Dynasties, many of them were devout believers in Buddhism. At the beginning of his reign, Emperor Wu followed his predecessors’ convention and paid respect to samana. In the fourth year of Tian He, he convened at four successive times the scholars of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism to carry on debates as to which religion’s doctrine was superior.

 

His original intention was to rank Buddhism after Confucianism, and Taoism above both of those. However, they could not come to a conclusion through the debates because the scholars from the three religions stuck to their arguments. Later Zhen Luan sent his book of Xiao Dao Lun to the Emperor, and Dao An sent his book, Discussion on the Two Religions, in which they tried their utmost to speak in defense of Buddhism and denounce Taoism. The Emperor was so unhappy about the debate between Buddhism and Taoism that he gave an imperial order to put off for a while the debate about which is superior. In the third year of Jian De, Emperor Wu Di convened some Buddhists and Taoists for a debate in his Tai Ji Palace. Zhang Bin did his utmost to denounce Buddhism which was defeated by Master Zhi Xuan. As a result, Emperor Wu Di held court in person in order to argue against the opponent’s viewpoint. Surprisingly, Master Zhi Xuan calmly answered back with brilliant statements, causing the Emperor to leave his Tai Ji Palace infuriated. The next day he gave the imperial edict to abolish both Buddhism and Taoism, destroy the temples and pagodas, burn the figures of Buddha and compel samana and Taoists to resume secular life. About 20,000 smana were forced to resume secular life, and Buddhism in the region of Guanzhong-Longxi was almost completely destroyed.

 

In the sixth year of Jian De, after the Northern Zhou Dynasty conquered the Northern Qi Dynasty, Emperor Wu Di implemented the policy of excluding Buddhism by burning the figures of Buddha and destroying the temples. As a result, Buddhism in northern China vanished for a short while.

 

The next year after the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution, Emperor Wu Di suffered from severe skin ulcers and died of this disease at the early age of 35. Emperors Xuan and Jing took the throne in succession; only then did Buddhism gradually regain its position.

 

Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution by Emperor Wu Zong of the Tang Dynasty

During the period of Emperor Wu Zong of the Tang Dynasty which was based on Confucianism ways and strategies of managing a country, many literati and officials thought that the booming of Buddhism would jeopardize the country’s economy; hence, they viciously attacked it. Besides, Emperor Wu Zong was keen on Tao techniques and how to practice them. Once he summoned 81 people, including Zhao Gui Zhen, to his palace, then built a Jinlu Taoist ashram in San Dian, while he himself accepted Falu. In June of the first year of the Hui Chang reign, he summoned Liu Xuan, a Taoist priest in Heng Shan, to his palace and let him practice Falu with Zhao Gui Zhen.

 

The policies he applied to abolish Buddhism progressed step by step. From what the historical data say, the harsh decrees he employed were steadily increased. In March of the fourth year of the Hui Chang reign, he ordered that people were forbidden to make offerings to tooth and bone relics of the Buddha; anyone breaching this order would be flogged with a stick. For a short while, traces of human presence were cut off in the temples. For a longer time period, Buddhist sutras and figures of Buddha were enshrined and worshipped in the imperial palace. However, Emperor Wu Zong gave orders to burn Buddhist sutras and destroy Buddhist figures. Instead, the figures of Tian Zun La Jun were placed in his ashram. As he was deeply convinced by what Zhao Guizhen said to him, he started an unprecedented Anti-Buddhist Persecution. He gave the edict to destroy the temples in the mountains, Caturdesa, Aranya, common Buddhist altars, public wells and dining rooms in Buddhist temples in villages.

 

In March and April of the fifth year of the Hui Chang reign, he compelled monks and nuns to resume secular life; if anyone disobeyed the order, he/she would be executed on the spot under the accusation of disobeying the imperial edict. In August, his decrees resulted in extensive demolition of temples and figures of Buddha as well as Buddhist musical instruments such as bells and chime stones to be cast into coins and farm implements. Even privately-owned golden and silver figures of Buddha were required to be turned in to officials. This catastrophe was called the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution of Hui Chang.

 

The next year after this incident, Emperor Wu Zong died from poison while taking a Taoist golden elixir. After that, Emperor Xuan Zong took the throne, killed Zhao Gui Zhen, etc. and revived Buddhism.

 

Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution by Emperor Shi Zong in Hou Zhou Dynasty

The fourth Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution by Emperor Shi Zong happened in the second year of Xian De of the Later Zhou Dynasty. In order to implement his ruling policies to be based on Confucianism, he used the excuse that the monks and nuns in Buddhist temples had become a national financial burden, thus giving an imperial edict forbidding people to become a monk or nun on their own. He made some harsh requirements for those who wanted to be a monk or nun and also specified that only those initiated into monkhood or nunhood from the nationally-acknowledged Pravarana (precept platform) were recognized, otherwise it was invalid. Temples or aranya were not allowed to be built; if anyone disobeyed, he would be punished with cruel torture. All the existing temples must be demolished. Figures of Buddha made of bronze, brass or copper held by civilians had to be turned in to the government to be cast into money. If anyone were found secretly keeping any that were worth more than five Jin, he would be executed. This collection of incidents was called the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution of Yi Zong. According to legend, Emperor Shi Zong hacked the chest of the Bodhisattva figure with an axe to show his intention of destroying Buddhism.

 

In the sixth year of Xian De, during his journey of northern conquest, all of a sudden Emperor Shi Zong developed a carbuncle abscess in his chest and died from it shortly afterward.

 

After we have made a general survey of the four Great Anti-Buddhist Persecutions of “three Wu’s and one Zong,” we can easily conclude that the reasons for those incidents were nothing but the emperor’s sincerely believing in his own religion without showing any tolerance for other religions (which is the opposite of what Ashoka did), or because, when antagonism arose between the religions, the emperor could not discern and resolve it, or still yet, because the emperor was not able to make full use of Buddhist resources to turn them into proper production for the country, Instead he mistook Buddhists and their temples for a financial burden on the country. Fortunately, Buddhism has eventually been accepted on a universal basis because of “its essence of setting one’s mind at rest,” which has been passed on in Buddhism for thousands of years. In spite of the repeated Anti-Buddhist Persecutions, Buddhism is still standing, towering like a giant in the world’s multicultural civilization and playing a positive role.

 

III: Buddhism’s importance as a non-governmental organization (NGO) in assisting a country’s politic

Over 80% of today’s world population professes some form of religious belief; although Buddhism makes up only 6% of that total, yet it plays a decisive role in human civilization.

 

Considerable consensus exists between politics and Buddhist ideology. Overall, politics concerns itself with crowd management and maintaining social groups, while Buddhist precepts strive for strengthening the purity of our society. ) Politics calls for universal adherence to laws, while Buddhism requires universal self-discipline. Political measures vary depending on different local, temporal and social conditions, while Buddhism attempts to indoctrinate people into accommodating differing needs. Politics insists on immediate practical results, and Buddhism attaches importance to benefiting others in the long-term, not just the present. Politics uses force to govern a country, while Buddhism actually assists in political governance through teaching people self-discipline in morality. Through the use of external measures, politics requires its people to abide by the law, while Buddhism educates people on how to draw on their own internal resources to cultivate their basic nature in order to improve themselves. Politics encourages everyone to live and contribute to society through possessing a positive attitude, while Mahayana passionately advocates its adherents to make full use of their time and do good deeds to benefit others. All of these demonstrate that Buddhism as an NGO, through using wisdom and benevolence, is essential to the political party in power in helping to solve society’s problems.

 

The political morality of Buddhism is to govern people by practicing Buddhist dharma. That way the millennium will eventually occur, resulting in the complete lack of hostility as people will respect and love each other by virtue of alms-giving and following the way of Sila. Despite the apparent social disorder and deteriorating society nowadays, Buddhism insists that all people try to tolerate others and seek the common ground while ignoring differences, to experience and understand original existence through contemplation, to respect each other and live in harmony in order to create a peaceful and enlightened society. Through Buddhism’s aims at benefiting mankind, it can effect an invisible stability to the country. Just as Master Lushan Hui Yuan said, “In a town of 100 people, if 10 of them follow Sila, then the ten people will be honest and sincere; in a city of 1000 people, if 100 of them practice “the ten good deeds,” then the 100 will live in harmony; if this practice can be spread to the surrounding region, if there are 1000 of the bingos (persons written into the household register), there will be a million benevolent persons. If one practices a good deed, a bad deed can be avoided; since it is avoided, the criminal penalty is unnecessary; for this reason, the entire criminal penalty in the country will become unnecessary. It is so-called easily-attained peace.”

 

IV: The actuality of Buddhism on the Chinese Mainland and Ways to Improve It

Part IV The actuality of Buddhism on the Chinese Mainland and Ways to Improve It

 

Nowadays, Buddhism has not played a proper and positive role on the Chinese mainland because of the fact that some Buddhists themselves there lack self-discipline and have not accepted or pondered over the idea of going into the secular world to practice Buddhism. This has resulted in an outdated system with improper positioning of its social role and an excess of Governmental intervention and control.

 

To harmonize disputes among different Buddhist sects

Recently, Buddhism on the Chinese mainland has been in a state of disunity, where disputes arise between the Exoteric Buddhism (Sutrayana) and Esoteric Buddhism, even between different sects and temples. Each individual entity does things its own way. The monks can’t reach a common view of integrated harmonization in terms of the theories (Pariyatti) of different sects and practicing a common direction. Because the parts have become separated from the whole, Buddhists’ practice has become superficial and formalized, being called “bubble/foamy Buddhism.” Because of this, Buddhism is losing its value to serve society, and the populace can’t get any moral support from the contemporary Buddhist dharma. On the Chinese mainland, more and more people are dissatisfied with Buddhism, especially Chinese Buddhism. A rough idea of this comes from the fact that, recently, Tibetan Buddhism and Southern Buddhism have rapidly developed independently. Master Yin Shun most sorrowfully said that “Zen (Chan) is the essential Traditional Buddhism, but it has lost its original features.” Some Buddhist orders have been abolished for quite a while. The confession ceremony, chanting the name of Buddha and chanting incantations are the only things still being practiced as Buddhist dharma; in the past, only the ways of Confucianism and Taoism competed with them. Today western religions and philosophy have joined in the competition, resulting in the fact that Buddhism is in need of great changes.

 

In view of this, it is necessary for Exoteric Buddhism and Esoteric Buddhism to have adequate communication and internal readjustment. In fact, historically, the two forms of Buddhism arose from the same source, so the only way to solve the dispute is to use Chinese Mahayana to lead all the different Buddhist sects to change the present situation of disunity and tackle the problem at its root. On this basis, a strong consensus of actively going into the secular world and helping the country get over its present difficulties as well as bringing benefits to its people can be reached. We can then probe into how to go into the secular world in order to assist the society in solving its problems, such as “the lack of morality in the common people,” “increasing serious psychological problems” and making contributions to China’s internal harmony and prosperity in the form of NGO.

 

To reform Buddhist monastic system

The Buddhist temples should be secluded places for those who want to cultivate their original nature and improve themselves. Nowadays, however, the temples have become places for some people to make money. The intervention and control of religious affairs from the local government to which the temples belong have nourished some monks’ utilitarianism in nearly every aspect. Recently the demoralization of monks has been frequently exposed by the media, raising the suspicion of the common people about Buddhist benevolence and credibility. On the other hand, as a Buddhist, a monk should have made a great effort to practice the basic tenets of Buddhism after accepting the offerings from the people to pay them back with his wisdom and benevolence instead of wearing cassocks in disguise under the name of Buddhism to demand money and other things. It is absolutely insane.

 

It is like the old saying that nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards being set. How can an integrated Buddhist system be formed if there is no normative system or scientific management? How can we be good examples for the world? Therefore, the improvement of the Buddhist internal system should be done through the following aspects:

 

First, disciplinary actions should be taken against the monks who have violated Brahmacari through corruption, law-breaking, etc. In the meantime, they should be given relevant education and training.

 

Second, economically, in the light of the principle, “what is taken from the people is to be used in the interests of the people,” temples should be guided to join in the secular world to do good deeds for society and to solve problems for the common people. Charity funds, student support funds (education support funding), supporting the poor funds, funds of “ready to help others for a just cause,” etc., should be set up on an extensive basis. Original Buddhist dharma and justice should be praised and propagated. Meanwhile, educational institutes should be run systematically and scientifically to educate more ambitious young people who love their country and its people.

 

Third, they should devote themselves to all the activities of rescue and disaster relief to inspire and lead the common people with Buddhist wisdom and benevolence.

 

In a word, the Buddhist culture which has been passed on for over 2000 years has become an indelible part of human civilization after it has gone through its glory and hardships. History shows that from time immemorial, any ruler can use, blend, praise, refer to, apply and change Buddhism, but by no means can it be abandoned or abolished. In the past, present or in the future, Buddhism, as an NGO has and will continuously show its irreplaceable fountain of wisdom and benevolence in assisting the governing of a country.

 

自释迦牟尼创立佛教僧团开始，佛教便在社会诸多领域发挥着积极的作用。无论释迦族人和邻国的水源之争，还是阿阇世王和越只国之怨，都在释迦牟尼本人及其佛教僧团的教化和调解下成功地化解了国与国之间的战争。而在中国历史上，高僧大德“出朝方丈、入朝国师”的现象也屡见不鲜。当然，除了辅助朝政的国师，还有转而出仕朝廷的宰相。另外，如唐朝玄奘大师在主持译经大业的同时，还要随驾太宗左右接受咨询国事。又如唐朝的玄琬法师受朝廷礼请为太子太傅。还如抗日战争期间，日本对缅甸、锡兰等佛教国家散播谣言，诬指我国没有佛教，破坏宗教信仰，当时的佛教领袖太虚大师出国宣扬国风，获得英、美、锡、缅各国的支持，滇缅公路得以畅通无阻。

 

在人类社会的历史进程中，确有许多君王执政爱民、招才纳贤，为国家与民族的长治久安，和融万法，使许多高僧大德有缘辅佐君王，为民造福、为国分忧；也有因各种原因而废佛、灭佛的执政者，他们对佛教的态度往往影响着国家和民族的长远发展。

 

一、 佛教对政治的促进作用

印度

约在公元前304年，古印度孔雀王朝的第二代君主生下一子，此子就是后来著名的阿育王。他对历史的影响就如他的知名度一样，可居印度帝王之首。他一生的业绩可分成两个部分：在其前半生，阿育王从平叛立威、杀兄夺位开始，到登基后对内设酷吏暴行施政，对外血腥嗜杀扩张领土，显示了其极度凶残专横的作风，这一时期被后人称为“黑阿育王”时代。此时的作风与后来中国的秦始皇类似，但与秦朝不同的是，阿育王的统治时间远比整个秦朝长得多，这不得不归结为其后半生的巨大转变和作为。其后半生被后人称为“白阿育王”时代。

在其对羯陵伽国的战争后，阿育王被伏尸成山、血流成河的场面所震撼，深感痛悔，他本有的佛性，此刻终于被恻隐之心唤醒。同时，也因为连年的对外征战和对内残酷镇压，其国家的经济形式及人民内部矛盾已经上升到了一个非常危险的程度。此时的王朝也迫切需要一种大众共识的信仰及文化体系，以统摄人心、固国安邦。正是因为对长治久安的思考与探索，阿育王才避免了类似中国秦朝那样被民众以“推翻暴政”为由，在很短的时间内颠覆。

阿育王在羯陵伽的战役后，曾多次请释迦牟尼的第四代法脉传承弟子，即佛教四祖——优婆毱多（后人称优婆毱多尊者）共商治国之策。在其感召下，阿育王开始对羯陵伽人民在战争中所遭受的苦难“感到深切的忧虑和悔恨”。后来他向全国人民宣布：“战鼓的响声”沉寂了，代替它的将是“法的声音”。在外交上，他频频向邻国派遣高僧、送去佛典、弘扬佛教文化。佛教很快传遍了锡兰、埃及、叙利亚、缅甸、中国及世界各地，这使其在四十多年的统治生涯里，享有国际盛誉。

之后，阿育王宣布佛教为印度的国教，并将他的诏令和“正法”的精神刻在崖壁和石柱上，成为著名的阿育王摩崖法敕和阿育王石柱法敕。阿育王亲自到各地朝礼佛的圣迹、修建佛塔、访问大德高僧，又在名胜之地的大山崖上，刻上佛的教导。这些文物至今还在那里屹立不倒。同时，阿育王规定要对其他宗教宽容，给予耆那教、婆罗门教、阿耆昆伽教应有的地位，禁止不同教派之间相互攻击。这些“正法”体现了佛教的基本精神，也包含了阿育王本人的统治韬略。正是这种立国教而包容他教的心量，阿育王有效地化解了多方的危机与矛盾。

佛教文化对阿育王朝的长治久安起到了积极的辅佐作用，而阿育王本人，借助佛教的“慈悲与智慧”，也完成了由暴君到明君的华丽转身。

 

中国

- 唐朝

公元五世纪，佛教第二十八代祖师菩提达摩东渡，将佛法心宗传入东土，开始了与中国本土之儒道思想的沟通、碰撞、磨合，继而开创了具有入世大乘佛法精神的禅宗。禅宗代代相传，已构成了中国文化不可分割的重要部分。

唐朝，政治清明，宗教自由，佛教兴盛，四域平和，八方来朝。旧唐书说：“是岁，断死刑二十九人，几致刑措，东至于海，南至于岭，皆外户不闭，行旅不赉粮焉。”

贞观十九年，玄奘取经返抵长安时，道俗奔走，倾都罢市，盛况空前。太宗亲撰《大唐三藏圣教序》，盛赞玄奘，推崇佛教。玄奘大师圆寂后，高宗悲恸逾恒，为之罢朝三日，追谥“大遍觉”之号。

武则天至唐玄宗时期，佛教更是各派相争斗妍、相得益彰，遍呈“街东街西讲佛经”之象，佛教普及之广令人叹为观止。武则天邀请当时的禅师神秀（北宗领袖）入京担任国师，神秀不仅精通佛法，还精通玄学、周易、奇门、易数、六壬、老庄等学说，被称为“两京法主，三帝本师”。这个时期，朝廷对佛教的认可和推行，正如唐士大夫李师曾所说：“唯佛之为敬也，对臣以忠，对子以孝，对国以治，对家以和”，认为佛教劝善、感化思想，对社会的平安祥和、繁荣昌盛，功不可没。

- 宋朝

两宋时期，佛教各派，特别是禅宗有了更进一步的本土化发展。随着印刷术的推广和普及，在民间得到了较大的弘扬。宋仁宗庆历七年，太监李允宁奏请将自己在京城的宅第改建成禅寺，宋仁宗有意扶助禅宗在北方的传播，赐此寺名为“十方净因禅寺”。宋代朝廷重视译经，积极扶持佛教，朝野上下形成了尊重佛教、探究佛教、信奉佛教的风气。此时，永明延寿禅师以禅宗“教外别传，不立文字，直指人心，见性成佛”为宗旨，同时又详细引述其他各派的理论与修行方法，主张两者结合，做到“禅教会通，理事双修”。这对当时的士大夫影响颇深。宋朝历代宰相、枢密使、参知政事，如吕蒙正、富弼、赵忭、范仲淹、王随、张方平、王安石、李纲、张浚及朝廷重臣王曙、杨杰、苏轼、苏辙、黄庭坚、张九成等，都曾与佛教有密切关系，有的甚至就是居士，常受益于禅僧点化。释、道、儒三者高度融合而成为社会上层人士普遍接受的思想。其时，中国的科技发明达到了一个高潮：古代的四大发明，有三项是在此间完成，且因社会经济、文化的高度繁荣，被国外一些历史学家称为“中国文化的复兴”期。

宋代重视商业、手工业的发展，并对多元文化包容、扶持，而成为了中国历史上少有的国家富裕、百姓殷实、佛法兴盛、科技发达的时代。

- 中国台湾

当代，台湾“人间佛法”的理论从早期的社会适应层面，已经提升到了社会关怀的层面。佛教的社会活动和组织动员能力是包括基督教在内的任何一个教派都无法与之相比的，佛教报刊、电台、电视和通俗演讲会比比皆是，佛教的社会地位和文化品位达到历史上前所未有的高度。出家人以本身的学术实力进入大学任教也成为寻常之事。用佛学论文奖学金、学生佛学社团、佛学夏令营等方式形成了佛教与社会之间的良性互动，不仅提升了整个教团的信仰、组织和文化水准，也推动了本地区全体民众文化素养的提高和地区的繁荣稳定。

一九九九年，台湾大地震中，最先、最有效、最获灾民和社会肯定的救灾民间团体就包括台湾佛教界的慈济功德会等各类佛教团体。另外，台湾佛教在大学教育方面，也发挥着重要作用。目前佛教界已在台创办数所大学，如南华大学、慈济大学、玄奘大学和华梵大学等，对社会教育的推广与青少年道德观念培养起到了积极的培养作用。

 

二、 历史上四大法难对政权稳定性的影响

在人类社会的历史进程中，并非所有的执政者都能借助佛教的慈悲与智慧来固国安邦。比如在我国，自佛教传入后，一方面有不少执政者借佛教之力以安天下，南北朝时期的宋文帝曾说如果天下的百姓都信佛教，“则吾坐致太平，夫复何事！”。而另一方面，也曾有几次大的政权“灭佛”行为，被后人称为佛教历史上的“三武一宗”法难。这四大法难，不仅严重扼杀了佛教文化的发展，同时也在很大程度上影响了当时的政权地位。

 

北魏太武帝灭佛

鲜卑族拓跋氏建立北魏，入主中原后，道武帝、明元帝笃信佛教，兴建了不少寺院。太武帝即位之初也信奉佛法，礼敬沙门。但后来，因听信宰相崔浩的劝谏，改信寇谦之的天师道，在平城东南建立天师道场，自称太平真君，成了十足的道教徒。

另一方面，北魏为了统一北方，巩固其在中原的地位，需要以全民为兵。而那时，由于沙门历来可以免除租税、徭役，所以锐志武功的太武帝开始排斥佛教，并在后来渐次发展为灭佛的行动。

这次行动，始自太平真君五年的弹压沙门，他下令上自王公，下至庶人，一概禁止私养沙门，并限期交出私匿的沙门，若有隐瞒，诛灭全门。翌年，卢水的胡人盖吴在杏城(陕西黄陵)起义，有众十余万人。七年，太武帝亲自率兵前去镇压，到达长安时，在一所寺院发现兵器，怀疑沙门与盖吴通谋，大为震怒，下令诛杀全寺僧众。崔浩趁机劝帝灭佛，于是太武帝进一步推行苛虐的废佛政策：诛戮长安的沙门，焚毁天下经像。一时之间，举国上下，风声鹤唳。当时太子拓跋晃监国秉政，再三上表，向太武帝劝阻，虽然都没被采纳，但也由于此举，废佛的诏书得以缓宣，而使远近的沙门闻讯逃匿获免，佛像、经论也多得密藏；然而魏国境内的寺院却无一幸免于难，史称太武法难。

废佛后不久，寇谦之病死，崔浩因蔑视胡族而遭腰斩，其族人被诛者百余人。废佛后六年，太武帝拓跋焘被宗爱所杀。宗爱立太武帝幼子拓跋余为帝，尔后，宗爱又杀拓跋余。直至文成帝即位，下诏复兴佛教，建云冈石窟，佛教才又逐渐恢复发展。

太武帝拓跋焘时期，虽然在一定时期内经济有一定的发展，但其极端的灭佛行动为后来的文成帝留下了祸根。尽管文成帝开始恢复佛教以安国安民，但由于太武帝留下来的“烂摊子”，导致臣民缺乏思想文化的共识，使得鲜卑贵族与汉族平民的矛盾逐渐突出；而另一个致命原因是鲜卑贵族严重腐败。虽然文成帝多次下诏制止鲜卑贵族的腐败行为，但由于百官腐化之深，诏令不能有效实行，未能减轻百姓痛苦，致使百姓反抗统治者的斗争，越演越烈。

最终，文成帝英年早逝。

 

北周武帝灭佛

第二次的废佛事件发生在北周武帝宇文邕之时，距北魏太武帝的废佛约有一百一十余年。北周继西魏之后，统领关陇地区，这一带从晋代以来佛教盛行，其中长安曾有鸠摩罗什的僧团在此长期译经传教，影响很大。当时，全国的僧尼有两百多万人，佛寺有三万多所。北朝的历代帝王，不少都笃信佛教，北周武帝即位之初，也依照先朝往例，礼敬沙门。天和四年，他先后四次召集佛、道、儒三教学者，论议教义的高低。武帝的本意，想以儒教为先、佛教为后、道教最上，但因几次聚众议论，三教各执一词，因此悬而不决。后来甄鸾上《笑道论》、道安上《二教论》等书，极力为佛教辩护，破斥道教。武帝对于佛道二教互相攻击，极感不快，敕令暂时搁置二教优劣的议论。建德三年，武帝召集僧道二众在太极殿辩论，张宾极力斥佛扬道，却被智炫法师论破，武帝乃亲自升座，试图加以论难，不料智炫法师应对安详，陈义甚高，武帝在盛怒之下离开太极殿。次日，下诏废佛、道二教，破毁寺塔，焚烧经像，勒令沙门、道士还俗。当时，被迫还俗的沙门有二万多人，关陇一带的佛法被破坏殆尽。

建德六年，北周灭了北齐，武帝又对北齐之地实行排佛政策，焚毁经像，废寺庙。北方佛教一时之间销声匿迹，史称周武法难。

法难后次年，武帝罹患剧疮而亡，年仅三十五岁。宣帝、静帝相继即位，佛教才又渐渐恢复。

 

唐武宗灭佛

唐代武宗时，不少士大夫基于儒家治术的观点，认为佛教的蓬勃发展将危害国家的经济，因而大加抨击。而武宗在即位之前就喜好道术修摄之事，曾经召请赵归真等八十一人入宫，在三殿修金籙道场，并亲受法籙。会昌元年的六月中，又召衡山道士刘玄靖入内，与赵归真同修法籙。

武宗废佛的政策，是采取渐进方式的，从史料看，其法令之严酷，与日俱增。会昌四年三月，下令不许供养佛牙、佛骨，如果违反法令则杖罚，一时之间，寺院人迹断绝。而在宫中的内道场，历来均安置佛教经像，武宗却下令焚烧经教，拆毁佛像，并在道场内安置天尊老君之像。由于武宗深信赵归真之言，于是七、八月发动空前的法难，敕令拆毁天下山房、招提、兰若、普通佛堂、义井、村邑斋堂等，勒令僧尼还俗。

会昌五年三、四月，武宗敕令僧尼还俗，如有抗命不从的，以违抗圣旨论罪，当场决杀。八月下诏，大举毁寺，又将佛像、钟磬等法器改铸为钱币、农具等物，乃至私家所藏金银等像亦敕令限时送官。此一空前浩劫，历史上称为会昌法难。

法难后次年，武帝因服用道士金丹，中毒身亡，宣宗即位，诛杀赵归真等人，并大力复兴佛教。

 

后周世宗灭佛

第四次法难发生于后周世宗显德二年，世宗为了贯彻以儒教为主的统治政策，以佛教寺院僧尼构成国家财政上的负荷为理由，下诏禁止私自出家；订立苛刻的出家条件，并规定必须在国家公认的戒坛受戒，否则无效；不许创建寺院或兰若，违者严刑；其余寺院，一律废毁；民间的佛像、铜器，限五十日内交由官司铸钱，如果私藏五斤以上的，一律处死。世称一宗法难。相传世宗为示毁佛之意，曾亲自用斧头砍毁菩萨造像之胸部。

显德六年，世宗在北征途中，胸部突发痈疽而身亡。

纵观“三武一宗”，其缘由无非以下几点：或因君王笃信一教而不能如阿育王一样立国教而兼容他教、或因教与教之间出现纷争而君王不能明鉴善巧、又或因君王无法将佛教众资源转化为相应的生产力而误认为教徒与寺院在经济上给国家财政增加了负荷。庆幸的是，佛教最终以其千年传承的“安心之法”深植民心，普受大众认可，尽管屡遭重击，依然屹立在世界多元化的文明中，并发挥着积极的作用。

 

三、 佛教作为NGO的辅政意义

在宗教人口占世界总人口百分之八十的今天，佛教信徒的比例仅为6%，而佛教依然在社会文明的进程中扮演着举足轻重的角色。

佛教思想和政治本身有着诸多的共识。政治是管理众人，维护社会的团体，而佛教是教化众生，净化社会的力量；政治要求人人守法，佛教要求人人自律；政治因时、因地、因人而制宜，佛教亦以方便为门；政治重视实效通行，佛教重视远益利济；政治以力治国，佛教以德辅国；政治从外做起，要求人民修身守法，而佛教从内做起，要求人民修心守道；政治要求人人积极面对人生努力奉献，而大乘佛法更主张把握“当下”、行在“当下”。由此可见，佛教作为NGO，悲智双运，是辅助执政党解决社会问题的得力助手。

佛教所说的政治道德，因为是以佛法治化，所以没有怨敌，布施持戒，最终使举国人民更相敬爱，而呈现一个太平盛世的气象。而面对当今人类社会各方环境极其恶化，各种乱象充塞于世，佛教认为社会大众应多培养包容、求同存异的气度，从平等法性中体证诸法千差万别的实相，彼此互相尊重、和谐共融，共同创造祥和、开明的社会。同时，佛教以其济世为民，能带给国家一股无形的内在稳定力。正如庐山慧远大师说：“百家之乡，十人持戒，则十人淳谨；千室之邑，百人修十善，则百人和睦；传此风教，以周寰区，编户一千，则仁人百万。夫能修一善，则去一恶；一恶既去，则息一刑；一刑息则万刑息于国，此所谓坐致太平者是也” 。

 

四、 中国大陆佛教现状及改良之策

当今佛教在中国大陆尚未发挥其应有的积极作用，究其原因，与佛教自身缺乏自律、缺乏对入世理念的认可和积极思考、体制陈旧和社会角色的错位以及政府过多的干预和管理等因素息息相关。

 

和谐宗派纷争

近年来，佛教界的显与密，甚至宗与宗、寺与寺之间出现了彼此纷争、各自为政的一盘散沙局面。僧众不能在宗派法理及修持方向上形成整体和融的共识。正是这种局部与整体的分离，使得佛教徒修持表面化、形式化、浅层化，形成了所谓的“泡沫佛教”现象；也正是因为这个因素，使得佛教日渐丧失对社会的服务价值，并使民众无法从当今佛法中得到真正的精神支持。在大陆，越来越多的人对佛教、尤其是汉传佛教产生不满，这从最近十多年来藏传及南传佛教的快速发展可见一斑。印顺法师曾经痛言：“传统佛教以禅宗为骨髓，而禅者已面目尽失。台贤沉寂，律制久废，乃唯以礼忏、念佛、持咒为佛法。昔日文化之为友为敌，唯儒与道；今则文化之新友新敌，将加入西方之宗教、哲学。处非常之变……”。

基于此因，佛教显密之间迫切需要足够的沟通与内部整顿。其实，自古显密本是一家，故化纷争之法唯以东土大乘统摄诸宗，方能一改今日之分离局面，正本清源。并可以此基础而形成强有力的“积极入世、为国分忧、为民造福”之共识，进而开展深入探讨入世之道，以辅助社会解决诸如“民众道德感缺失”、“心理问题日趋严重”等社会问题。并以NGO的形式，为国家内部的和谐、繁荣贡献力量。

 

改革丛林体制

寺院本是清静之地，方外之土，而当今寺院似乎成了生财之地，寺院所在地的地方政府对寺院宗教事务的管理和干预几乎无所不包，由此滋生了出家众的功利化。近年来，僧侣道德败坏、偏离出家人本位的现象在媒体频频曝光，从而引发民众对佛教慈悲与公信力的质疑。另一方面，在经济上，作为佛子，接受众生供养，本应精进修行，以慈悲智慧回报众生，而万万不该披着如来袈裟，依仗佛门名号去变相索取。

正所谓无规矩不成方圆，没有规范的制度和科学的管理、监督，何以形成一个清静的整体？何以做人间楷模？鉴于此，可从